A Mid-Semester Recap

My Personal Creation Story prior to reading the text of the Garden of Eden was as follows:

"In the beginning, God decided he wanted to create man in His image. He created the man and called him, Adam. Adam was naked and spoke to God. God told him he was perfect and good. He told Adam that he would place him in paradise, where all the animals would be his friends and the plants in the garden would be his food. God told Adam that he could eat every fruit in the garden, except from the tree of knowledge. God told him if he ate this fruit, he wouuld die. Adam agreed and live in the paradise called Eden. He was friends with all the animals, but Adam got lonely because he did not have any living thing like him to be friends with. He saw animals around him, and they all had mates, but not him. This made Adam very sad.

God saw that Adam was sad and went to comfort him. He asked adam was was wrong, and Adam explained what was troubling him. God agreed to give him a mate. He took one of Adam's ribs and from it created a creature called woman, and he called the woman, Eve. Adam fell in love with Eve, and they praised God in thanksgiving.

One day, when Eve was in the garden, a snake spoke to her. He told her that she should eat the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. But Eve remembered what God told Adam, and told the snake to go away. But the snake was cunning, and told Eve that the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge merely gave them immortality and the knowledge to be more powerful than God. Eve was hungry, and believed the snake. So, she ate the fruit. She gave the fruit to Adam, and he also ate it. But when they ate it, they both realized they were naked and gathered leaves to cover themselves.

God saw that Adam and Eve were shamed of their nakedness and realized they had eaten from the forbidden tree. He asked them why they ate the fruit. Adam said Eve gave it to him, and Eve said the snake told her to eat it. This made God angry and sad. He forgave them because he knew they were sorry, but he had to ban them from Eden because they ate the fruit. He banished them from the Garden of Eden, and they were now mortal. He also made sure that when Eve gave birth, it would be very painful. He also told the snake that the woman would always attack her and man would always kill it. God also made the snake and all his descendants forced to crawl on its belly for the rest of its life."

For one thing, in the Garden of Eden story, God called the creature "Man," not specifically Adam. This was mostly due to the translation, since ha adam means human in Hebrew. Also, in my story, Adam was told by God that he would live in paradise, rather than just saying, God created Adam in Paradise. Also, in my story, Adam was described as being lonely, and this was the reason why God created woman. But rather, God saw that it was not good that Adam was alone, and therefore, God created woman so that man could reproduce. This most likely originated from a childhood story told by a schoolteacher or a parent, since they would most likely "clean up" the story for a younger child. Also, in my personal story, I had it so that a significant amount of time passed between the creation of man and woman. Since Adam becomes lonely and sad because he observed all the other animals, and saw that they had mates. So not only did Adam have to name all the animals, but he also (in my story) became lonely and sad. This addition was most likely a cleaned up version of the Garden of Eden story told by a teacher or parent.

Also, it seemed that my personal creation story gave Adam much more power, and it seemed that God was much on the same level as Adam in the story. This most likely originated from the notion that, before the fall of man, humans, especially Adam, were very much created and possessed the social status equivalent to God, but when they sinned, they lost their divine qualities and gained mortal ones. For instance, in my creation story, it was Adam who said he was lonely and it was Adam who told God what he wanted. In the actual text, God decided it was not good for Adam to be alone, and thus, he took the initiative to create Eve from his rib.

What was interesting also was that my personal Genesis 3 was much more analogous to the actual text. I used the word "cunning" to describe the snake. However, there were many mistakes made. First of all, I stated that the Tree of Knowledge, according to the snake, gave them immortality and knowledge more powerful than God, but rather, in the text, the Tree of Life granted immortality, the Tree of Knowledge did not cause death, but gave them knowledge to make them more like gods. This interpretation may have been a misunderstanding of the text that stated that the Tree of Knowledge granted all the possible qualities to become like God, but rather the Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge were separate trees, and gave humans a choice between immortality or knowledge. Also, my reason for Eve's sin was that she was hungry and believed the snake. In other words, I believed that Eve's gullibility and her hunger, rather than her carnal desires, drove her to eat the fruit. Many have interpreted that because Eve was more gullible and thus inferior to Adam was the reason the snake chose to confront her, rather than Adam. These ideas most likely originated from there.

In my story, I mentioned how Adam and Eve covered themselves with leaves after they ate from the Tree. This was a correct quote from the Genesis story. I also correctly described how Adam told God that Eve told him to eat it, and how Eve told God that the snake told her to do it. Thus, these interpretations matched the Genesis text. I also interpreted the notion that God "forgave" Adam and Eve after the fall, which was not necessarily so. This most likely originated from the part of the text when God better clothed the pair with animal skins, and also from the Christian idea that God was a forgiving God. Also, in my story, I interpreted that the fall of Adam and Eve caused them to be mortal. I also noted the punishments of the snake and Eve, but none towards Adam. I also did not note that Eve was to be ruled by her husband.

What do I believe now?

The many questions posed by the various theologians and philosopher that have been mentioned on this blog have left me with many different views. But there are certain things I feel strongly about. I believe God created woman originally as a tool of reproduction and companionship. Unlike the other animals, God created Adam and Eve from different sources, one from the soil and one from Adam's rib. Thus, God made it so that Adam and Eve would essentially be the same person. Without each other, they not only wouldn't be able to survive, but they wouldn't have complete souls, since without one another, they are incomplete. Other animals were all created from soil, and all had the ability and urge to reproduce. Thus, this major difference between animals and humans clearly established the notion that humans have a much different bond to one another that surpasses physical explanation.

I believe that the snake was in fact, Satan. How could the snake talk without the help of a (once) celestial being. I also believe this explained why Eve ate the fruit. I believe that Eve's shift from not wanting to eat the fruit to desiring it was a clear example of the power of Satan. His temptations exist in our world even today. I believe that Satan chose Eve because it would be more fitting of a way for him to get revenge on Adam, much like the Vita elucidated. Much of my Catholic beliefs, I believe, come from the Vita. I believe that in some ways, in both a biological and philosophical sense, man and woman are equal because in certain aspects of life, man predominant, and in others, woman predominate. Thus, their strengths and weaknesses balance one another out. Furthermore, I believe Satan chose to tempt Eve because he realized if he tempted Adam, Eve would not eat the fruit because Eve would not be so inclined to eat the fruit from her husband. But rather, Satan knew that if Eve told Adam to eat from the Tree, he would do it, since her physical beauty was a huge power at her disposal.

I also believe that man and woman had the ability to be immortal as long as they were in the garden. I believe that the Tree of Life was more of a life sustainer rather than an object that create a person immortal. Thus, when Adam and Eve were banished, they lost this elixir of life. Even though it was never stated that Adam and Eve ate from the Tree of Life, they very well could have, since God only instructed Adam and Eve to not eat from the Tree of Knowledge. Thus, in the end, Adam and Eve, under Satan's influence, chose a life of knowledge, an aspect of human nature that is crucial to our superiority to other animals, rather than a life of immortality. As such, (even though I hate to admit it), Satan was the hero in a sense. For if we lived a life of immortality, life would become dull and boring. Without pain, suffering, or death, how could one truly appreciate the beautiful aspects of life. Life would become repetitive, and would not be worth living.

Paradise Lost

Line 917 of Book 9 began with Adam conversing to Eve about how doomed she was. He could not believe how bold Eve had been in eating the fruit. He realized that she in fact did not die, but he knew whatever effects it had on Eve could not be remedied, neither by God nor anyone else. However, he recognized that by eating the fruit, Eve did not die, and neither Eve nor the snake died from it. He then realized that because God had told them not to eat the fruit, the fruit must provide knowledge or some ability related to God or demi-gods. He also indiciated that God would not destroy them since they were his favorite and most dignified creation. They were the "prime Creatures... set over all his works, which in our Fall, for us created, needs with us must faile, dependent made." Thus, by creating them to watch over the fowl of the Earth, God became dependent on the humans for the survival of his other creations.

Milton then presented Adam as a sort of hero, in which Adam claimed that because he could not live without Eve because he would be incomplete without her existence, since she was created from his rib, he must not lose her. Then, Eve spoke, in which she said that she too felt that they were one soul because of her creation from his rib. And thus, she negotiated, that Adam too must eat from the fruit, since they had the same soul, and thus the same sin, "one Guilt, one Crime." She also elucidated that she felt "opened Eyes, new Hopes, new Joyes." These new feelings were effects felt from eating the fruit, and thus, she convinced Adam to eat the fruit. She embraced him in tears, and handed him the fruit. It seemed as if Milton made it so that Eve was the less noble of the two, since she wanted to bring down her mate with her, while Adam did not want his mate to fall alone. She also cried and embraced him, and told Adam of the new joys she felt, seemingly tempting him into eating the fruit. In fact, Milton said, that Adam was not decieved, but "overcome with Femal charm." As soon as he ate the fruit, "the Earth trembled from her entrails as again in pangs, and Nature gave a second groan, skie lowered and muttering Thunder, som sad drops wept at compleating the mortal Sin Original." Milton portrayed that Nature, and perhaps God himself could sense the horrific terror that came forth from their sin. It represented a chaotic turn in natural order, the beginning of the end of Paradise. After this, Adam became enflamed with "carnal desire, and he lusted after Eve. Adam spoke to Eve, telling her that the Tree had given them this new pleasure, and then tells her that they should play. The two retreat and have sex. Thus, Milton interpreted that Adam and Eve had sex right after Adam ate from the fruit. This went against the exact text of Genesis, which claimed that Adam and Eve had sex when they were banished from Eden. After they had sex, they fell asleep and awoke, seeing that their eyes had indeed been opened, and saw things much differently. Here, they realized that they had indeed disobeyed God, and then cover themselves, ashamed of their nakedness.

Luther and Calvin: Two Interpretations of Genesis 1-3

a.) Are women created in the Image of God?

According to Luther, because Genesis 1:26 stated that, "Let him have dominion over the fish of the sea, etc," both male and female had this God given power over the rest of the animals. Because male and female were created together in Genesis one, it was clear that they both were in the image and likeness of God, and this gave them superiority over the rest of the living creatures on the planet. He also pointed out that they BOTH had "a most perfect knowledge of God," and that "Eve had these mental gifts in the same degree as Adam." Thus, Luther not only believed that women were created in God's image, but that they were as equal in knowledge and authority as men. He does demonstrate, however, that in certain of aspects of life, men are superior than women, and women are superior to men in others.

According to Calvin, however, he believed that being made in God's image was restricted to "government, in which the man has superiority over the wife." He explained that Paul meant this nothing more than that "the man is superior in the degree of honour." Thus, Calvin did not believe women were created in the likeness of God. He also pointed out that the glory of God "shined forth in human nature, where the mind, the will, and all the senses, represent the Divine order." Thus, Calvin believed that woman was created in the image of God, but was not equal with Adam in every aspect of life. According to Genesis 3, the husband rules over the wife, and thus, was superior to her.

b.) Why were women added to the created world?

According to Luther, Eve was created for many different reasons, not just one. In Genesis 1, he elucidated the male and female were created together so that they both would have dominion over all living creatures, over the land, and would partake in "the divine image and the divine similitude." In other words, both were created in the image and likeness of God, and for this reason, they would rule over everything. Luther also argued that they were created together so that they would have an inseparable relationship together, so that they may help one another in all aspects of life, not just procreation. For it was said, in Gen 2:18, "The Lord God also said: it is not good that man is alone; I shall make him a helper which should be before him." Luther explained that "the woman was so created that she should everywhere and always be about her husband." However, Luther also explained that after the fall, the act of sex became sinful, demonstrated by Adam and Eve's shame of their nakedness. As such, the only reason why sex had a negative connotation was due to the acquired attributes from eating the fruit. Woman was made as a helper for man, just as man was a helper for woman. Both needed the other to procreate, and both needed the other to rule over everything. Because God said it was not good for man to be alone (and because God is always right), man and woman were meant to be together, in life and reproduction. He also explained that women were a building of God, through "procreation and other services that are necessary in the household" they built the home, and the husband could house themselves in the woman (have sex with) and experience great pleasure and joy." Without the women, there would be no household, no children, and no sexual pleasure, and thus, woman have an equally significant role in nature. He even stated that a woman, in every aspect in life besides gender, is a man.

According to Calvin, woman was created as a helper for man. He believed that women, in "a second degree," were created in the image and likeness of God, but were also created to assist man throughout life. Because God elucidated that it was not good for man to be alone, and thus not be married, women were created as a "companion and an associate to the man, to assist him to live well." However, unlike Luther, he indicated that there was a marked distinction between male and female, and that the "man excels the woman." Thus, women were created as a support system for the man during marriage, and their vocation in life was to help the husband, and "instruct in their duty." In other words, the woman's main vocation was to be a wife to the husband. He also pointed out, however, that "the obligation for both sexes is mutual," and thus, the woman's main role was a helper, and the husband's main role was a leader to the wife. Thus, Calvin, unlike Luther, believed in a distinction between the sexes, rather than an equality. It was a mutual relationship, with man as the leader, and the woman as the helper, much like a doctor (a male dominated vocation) has a nurse (a female dominated vocation).

c.) The interpretation of "one flesh"

According to Luther, "one flesh" represented both the act of sex and the institution of marriage. Without the woman, man was not able to procreate. The two were created together so that they may help one another in all aspects of life, but mainly reproduction, since it was not possible without the existence of women or man. "One flesh" also meant that the wife and the husband possessed the same attributes and abilities, since woman was created from man. Thus, the two do not differ in any other aspect other than gender. They were created separately so that they could help one another to successfully live their lives.

According to Calvin, "one flesh" meant that, through women, mankind was completed, and thus, was very similar to the body of Christ. Though man lost a part of himself when his rib was taken, he gained something far more useful, an "associate for life." He was rendered imperfect, but through her, he was completed. Thus, women are a basis for the existence and perfection of man. Thus, women were a helper, a wife, and an associate. He interpreted that one flesh meant that, through marriage, mankind was completed.

d.) Why did Eve eat the fruit?

According to Luther, the snake decided to confront Eve because she was the sex that he could more easily tempt. This was because Eve was inferior to Adam in this context. If the snake had spoken to Adam in such a way, he would have killed the snake and everything would have been done with. But because Eve lacked this physical strength, she was a much easier being to tempt. Next, Luther explained that the snake was extremely cunning, and it first decided to attack the faith in the Word. Eve distorted God's command not to eat the fruit, and thus, the snake tricked the women into wavering the language God presented to Adam. This, according to Luther, was merely a demonstration of the cunning nature of Satan and the snake. He next attacked the women by stating that the Tree offered knowledge. This made the tree much more desirable to Eve, and made her question the Word of God, which she had already distorted. He explained that root of sin was dearth of belief in the Word and turning away from God. Satan's abilities, he explained, were nearly as powerful as God's, and thus, had incredible means of manipulating humans. Thus, Eve's failure was not a demonstration of her evilness, but rather of Satan's uncanny ability to cause all mankind to sin. Thus, Eve ate the fruit because Satan tricked her into doubting the word of God, and making her believe that the Tree offered a source of knowledge.

According to Calvin, Eve had been assaulted by Satan, and, like Luther said, Eve could not resist this attack. The snaked caused her to doubt that the Tree would impose death, and thus, the woman was merely mistaken by her "perception of the true danger of death." She did not wish to disobey God, but Satan's assault caused her to doubt the word of God. His abilities were thus very influential and powerful. What Calvin also pointed out was that Adam's sin was more at fault to the fall of man, since he disobeyed God because of women's allurements, rather than Satan's powers. Thus, Adam was tricked by the woman, one who did not have powers as great as Satan, and thus his sin caused the introduction of sin into the world.

e.) What is the effect of the events in Gen 3 on human relations?

According to Luther, the Fall caused the inequality between men and women. God created a government between the man and the woman in order to fix what the serpent had broken. He argued that Eve and Adam were created equally, and they both were to have dominion over all things, and were to mutual help one another lead a successful life. Neither in body or soul was Eve inferior to Adam, but after the fall, God thought it was necessary to create a social hierarchy in order to prevent another event in which Satan tempted the humans. Both Adam and Eve kept their respective sexes, but God needed to create this hierarchy in order to protect humans from Satan's grasp. He even saw the fall as somewhat of a blessing, considering Eve kept her role as a source of procreation, and she was still in fact a woman and was to remain with Adam, rather than be separated from him. Luther believed that the fall caused women to have to be ruled by their husbands. But it was through her that men were created, who were able to "crush the head of Satan." Therefore, the pains of pregnancy were still a blessing, since this natural ability of women was a powerful miracle in itself.

According to Calvin, the hierarchy between man and woman existed both before and after the fall. Before the fall, the snake assaulted the woman, not the man, a clear indication that the woman was inferior to the man. As a helper, woman was inferior to man, who was the leader. However, through the fall of mankind, this inequality between man and woman was even more persistent. In other words, the social hierarchy had widened, and now the woman was to be ruled by their husbands. Thus, they were not just a helper, but a slave. Her thoughts and desires would be toward her husband, and only her husband, and the husband had the God-given power to rule over her. It was no longer a form of mutualism, in which they both help one another. Now, woman was in servitude for the husband, rather than just being a helper to her leader, man.

Lilith: The Original Feminist

Alphabet of Ben Sira: pg. 204

When God created man and woman together, he created both Adam and Lilith from the dust of the soil. According to the story, they immediately began to fight. It seemed as if Lilith, who was made from the same material was man, was arguably more equivalent to Adam than Eve. In other words, Lilith was an example of a woman with the same status as a man. Thus, she had the power and nature to fight him, or equal him. Many have argued that because Eve was created from Adam, she was inferior to him. Lilith, although a woman like Eve, was made from the same material as man, and thus, equal to Adam. She consistently demonstrated this, by saying, "You shall lie below, for we are equal and both of us were created from the earth." As such, Lilith was the original feminist. The two did not listen to each other, and she actually flew away from Adam. Adam prayed to God to retrieve her, and He sent three angels after her. They seized her and told her she could either come with them or they would drown her. She merely answered them by saying, "Darlings, I know myself that God created me only to afflict babies with fatal disease when they are eight days old; I shall have permission to harm them from their birth to the eighth day and no longer; when it is a male baby; but when it is a female baby, I shall have permission for twelve days."

The fact that Lilith, a feminist, had the ability to harm young babies. She was a symbol of death and illness. Why would a feminist be given the ability to harm young babies. Perhaps this was an allegory for abortion, since feminists tend to believe in "pro-choice," since they generally believe it is the choice of the mother's to decided whether the embryo should survive in the womb. Since Lilith had the ability to harm babies, she had the ability to abort them. Thus, Lilith demonstrated her abilities associated with death and illness. Her ability to control her life according to her will exemplified her feminist qualities. However, Lilith being a symbol of death could merely be a way for the author to discourage women from being like Lilith, since she brought illness and disease into the world. Because she was equal and rebellious towards Adam, Lilith represented a threat to Adam, and thus, he would try to make Lilith seem evil in order to prevent her from gaining more power over him.

"The Coming of Lilith: Toward a Feminist Theology": Judith Plaskow

In Plaskow's story of Lilith, the Alphabet of Ben Sira was used as a basic infrastructure. Much like before, Lilith and Adam were created together, they fought, and Lilith fled, because she could not tolerate Adam. According to rabbinic legend, Adam's first wife was Lilith. Adam ordered Lilith to do certain things, and she refused to be pushed around by Adam, her equal. The equality between Adam and Lilith was an original demonstration of feminism in theological legend. However, Plaskow explained, that the feminism did not lie within the rebellion and equality between the man and the woman, but the sisterhood between Lilith and Eve.

When she fled, because she could not live with him, possibly because of her equality to him, Adam needed another mate, so God created Eve, much like in Genesis 2, when God caused a great slumber to fall over Adam, and he created Eve from his rib. Adam and Eve got along great, but Eve was disturbed by the closeness between God and Adam. She realized that Adam and God were very much alike, while she was not like him. God also became disturbed because he realized how much power Adam had gotten, considering he told God to banish Lilith and it had been so.

Then, Lilith repeatedly tried to penetrate the walls of Eden. Adam had Eve help him make the walls stronger, and told Eve that Lilith inflicted disease and death among children and those bearing children. When Lilith finally broke through the gates, she was finally defeated by Adam. However, Eve recognized that Lilith and her were very similar. Eve became very interested in Lilith, admiring her beauty and strength. Because of this, Eve began to question her limits within the Garden. She realized that Lilith, a woman like herself, had taken control of her own destiny, and was able to break the limits of the walls of Eden. This cause Eve to climb over the walls of Eden, and seek out Lilith. The two immediately bonded and shared their stories and secrets together, much like women do today. This, Plaskow argued, was the beginning of feminism, in which a sisterhood was established between two women who recognized they were equal to men. Because of this growing sisterhood between the two, both God and Adam feared the possibilities that the two had together.

Could Lilith be the "snake" in the garden? Perhaps, this would make sense. Eve and Lilith (the theoretical snake) could have formed a great deal of trust and faith in one another. If Lilith told Eve that the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge was not harmful, and contained the means of acquiring knowledge, Eve would trust her. Furthermore, Lilith and Eve would want to acquire knowledge, because it would therefore establish dominance over Adam. This would explain why Adam would eat the fruit, so that the two would not surpass him in knowledge. Or, perhaps, Eve and Lilith decided to bring down Adam with them, since they knew the possible consequences of their actions. Either way, it could be considered that Lilith was a figurative snake in Genesis 2-3. Lilith would also tie together the two Genesis stories. Since man and woman were created together in Genesis 1, this would imply that both Lilith and Adam were created together. Then, since Adam was lonely, since Lilith fled, God decided to create Eve from Adam's rib, much like the story goes. Furthermore, the story of Lilith and Eve would explain why Eve desired to eat from the tree of knowledge, since she became uneasy about the close relationship and resemblance between God and Adam. Her loyalty and sisterhood to Lilith would be a very potential motif in her wanting to acquire knowledge from the fruit.

Knowledge of Good and Evil

pg. 213-214

Commentary on the Torah: Nahmanides

Genesis 2:9

Nahmanides did not believe that the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge caused man to possess sexual desire. The idea that sexual desire originated from the Tree of Knowledge originated from the part in Genesis 2-3, when the humans clothed themselves because of their shame of their nudity. He believed that before eating from the Tree of Knowledge, Adam did what was "fitting to do according to nature." In other words, he did not choose between two opposite things, but rather he did what he was supposed to do. He was faithful to God and merely completed his task. But through the Tree of Knowledge, Adam was given the ability to choose between "a thing and its opposite, whether for good or for evil." As such, man was given a free will, to do as they wanted to do. This, of course, had consequences, but it was what differentiated humans from all other creatures. Mankind was given a free will, something that could overcome natural instincts, and overshadow reason. Man had the right to choose between good and evil, whether it was beneficial or not. It was both a benefit and a curse to humanity. Of course, sex was apart of this choice, as Nahmanides pointed out. Before betraying God, humans only had sex merely because it was apart of their biological behavior, a natural instinct. After betraying God, sex became more than just a means of reproduction, but a way to "gratify desire." Lastly, Nahmanides pointed out that, before the fall of man, all organs, including the sexual organs, were merely seen as they were, "like the face and the hands and they were not ashamed of them." But after they ate from the Tree, man was given a choice, which depended on his own will, to choose between good and evil. So, man chose to hide his organs because it was apart of his will.

The Guide for the Perplexed: Maimonides

On Genesis 3:5, part 1, chap. 2:

Maimonides began with an idea that he himself did not believe in. He dicussed the use of the term "Elohim," which was a homonym, denoting "God, angels, judges and the rulers of countries." This term was used in Gen 3:5, "And ye shall be like Elohim," meaning, according to this idea, that man was initially equal to the rest of the animals. In other words, man did not posess intelligence, reasoning, or a conscience. Rather, it was not until after Adam disobeyed God that he acquired the ability to distinguish between good and evil, making him perfect, since it was the "essential characteristic of the human race." In other words, this related to Darwinism, in which man was originally like animals. Since humans evolved from animals, they were originally like animals. It was not until he ate the fruit that he evolved into a human, distinguishing himself from the other creatures of the world. Mankind, through Adam, acquired characteristics of the human race, much like Darwin believed animals evolved over time. Humans, like the rest of nature, were able to adapt and change, and thus, humans had to distinguish themselves from animals at one point in time, since they possess emotions, conscience, greater intelligence, and reasoning. It was through Adam's disobedience that this evolution from beast to human took place.

However, Maimonides elucidated that this notion was false. He said that this was "equivalent to saying that a certain man was rebellious and extremely wicked, and wherefore his nature was changed for the better." He explained that, if one looked closer, they would see that intellect was bestowed on Adam before he ate from the Tree of Knowledge. He referenced Genesis, which stated that "man was created in the form and likeness of God." Thus, man was originally created superior to the animals. He also argued that God could not command humans without humans having intellect, since "no commandments are given to the brute creation or to those who are devoid of understanding." Then, Malmonides distinguished between apparent and necessary truths. He believed that Adam possessed necessary truths, being able to distinguish between true and false, before he disobeyed God. He explained that with man's intellect originally allowed him to have the ability of necessary truths. However, before eating from the Tree, Adam was not able to understand the principles of apparent truths, or morals. In other words, before the fall, Adam did not acknowledge the fact that he was naked, because "he could not comprehend why it should be so." However, after Adam's fall, in which he gave way to his "desires which had their source in his imagination and to the gratification of his bodily desires, as it is said, 'And the wife saw that the tree was good for food and delightful to the eyes.' (Gen 3:6), Adam was punished by losing this intellectual aspect. By obtaining the knowledge of apparent truths, he lost this intellectual aspect, and rather acknowledging what was true or false, Adam distinguished between what was "proper and improper." Then, Malmonides explained that because Adam and Eve "knew they were naked," this implied that their had realized they were naked before, but they believed it was wrong after eating from the Tree. In other words, Adam and Eve always saw their nakedness, but they believed it was morally wrong to be naked in front of one another. It was not as if they had not seen their bodies before, but rather they thought nothing of it before the fall of Adam.

Malmonides suggested that, before the fall, Adam was both pleasured and happy. In the Garden, pleasure, happiness, and security made Eden a grand paradise. But when Adam's "appetite grew stronger" and gave into his bodily desires, he was punished by depriving him of everything, forcing him to work for his food, by the sweat of his brow. Malmonides, then, pointed out that Adam was essentially brought back down to the level of animals after the fall, since he was banished from Eden, and forced to live on "the ground whence he was taken." God reminded Adam that he was merely dust of the soil, and he would eventually return to that soil because of it. In other words, Malmonides believed that man started out with an intelligence that surpassed all animals of the earth. But after eating from the Tree of Knowledge, mankind lost this intellect, gained a knowledge of apparent truths (of good and evil, of morally right and wrong, or essentially a conscience), but were brought back to the level of animals. Because mankind was made from the same material as animals, they too would have to work for their food and live a life of suffering. Furthermore, mankind demonstrated that he too would give into bodily desires and natural instincts, much like an animal. This further established the notion that the punishment given to them by God was fitting. Humans may have acquired a new kind of knowledge, but they demonstrated their animalistic attributes by giving into bodily pleasures and desires. Thus, they were "brought to the level of the dumb beast." (Ps. 49:13)

Personal Thoughts about the Knowledge of Good and Evil:

Knowledge of good and evil was referring to a conscience of some sort, a way of distinguishing between what was morally right and wrong, much like Malmonides elucidated. However, I believe that the banishment from Paradise did not bring down humans to the level of animals, much like he explained. Rather, humans were superior to animals both before and after the fall. Mankind originally possessed greater knowledge and intellect than animals, but when they ate from the tree, they were given the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. As such, man did not lose one form of intellect over the other. Rather, mankind was given the choice between thinking intellectually and thinking morally. They possessed both an inner conscience and intellect that separated them from the rest of the animal kingdom. God clearly stated that mankind was originally created in God's image, and thus, were distinguished from the beasts.

One distinct clue that established the notion of this "knowledge of good and evil" was Genesis 3:6, right after Eve ate from the Tree, in which she realized that the "tree was good for eating/ and that it was a delight to the eyes, and the tree was desirable to contemplate." Before eating from the tree, Adam and Eve could recognize the tree and decided that they should not eat from it because it would kill them. But when Eve discovered that she would not die from eating from the fruit, since the snake told her so, she did not see any wrong in eating from the tree. She gave into her bodily desires and ate the fruit, and immediately she recognized that she was nude. There was nothing wrong with the human body, but revealing one's nude self, today, was viewed as morally wrong. As such, the author of this text attempted to describe how this idea that nudity was morally wrong in public originated. After eating from the tree, both Adam and Eve hid themselves, because they knew what they did was wrong. Before, they saw nothing wrong with eating from the tree, since they discovered it was not fatal to eat from. After eating the fruit, they realized they had disobeyed God, and hid themselves. Thus, the Tree of Knowledge caused them to acquire a knowledge of what was wrong and what was right.

Thomas Aquinas

Summa Theologica: Thomas Aquinas

Question 92 of Part I: The Production of Woman

First Article: Whether the Woman Should Have Been Made in the First Production of Things?

Aquinas began by stating 4 questions: "(1) Whether the woman should have been made in that first production of things? (2) Whether the woman should have been made from man? (3) Whether of man's rib? (4) Whether the woman was made immediately by God?" The first article dealt with answering the first question.

Each article had contained objections in response to the question. The first objection referred to Aristotle, who stated that "female is a begotten male." Thus, because the female was begotten, she should not have been made in the "first production of things." The second objection referred to Gregory of Nyssa, who elucidated, "Where there is no sin, there is no inequality." In other words, before sin, there should have been no inequality. But because woman (according to Augustine, who said "the agent is always more honorable than the patient")naturally had "less strength and dignity than man," this statement would be invalid if women were created at the first production of things, since inequality would exist before sin. Thus, women could not exist before sin. The third objection explained that because woman was the cause of sin, God should not have created women, since "sin should be cut off."

Aquinas replied with his own arguments against these objections. He began with a direct quote from Genesis 2:18, "It is not good for man to be alone; let us make him a helper like to himself." Aquinas argued that it was absolutely necessary for woman to be created for the purpose of reproduction. He did not believe that the word "helper" meant "helpmate" as some had interpreted, but rather as "a helper in the work of generation." Then, he used both scientific and philosophic observations to support this argument. He observed that some plants and animals could reproduce without a helper, but humans in particular could not do this. Plants could do this because their principle means of survival was reproduction. But because "perfect animals" had a "nobler vital function" than reproduction, males and females had to unite in order for reproduction to take place. Males would possess the "active power of generation" and females the "passive power of generation." One plant posessed both of these powers, and therefore, did not need a helper in reproduction. As such, in perfect animals, male and female had to become one in order for offspring to be produced. Their union during sexual intercourse represented the duality of active and passive powers of generation, and thus, reproduction was possible through man and woman becoming one flesh. Thus, Aquinas once again used Genesis 2 as a reference, which stated that men and women "shall be two in one flesh" (Gen 2:24) right after the formation of women. Thus, women's purpose was for this union of two fleshes to form one, which would lead to the production of offspring.

In his reply to the first objection, Aquinas pointed out that, arguably, the masculine sex's active force provided the attributes characteristic of Adam, who was of "perfect likeness," while the feminine sex originated from defects in the active force or "some material disposition." In other words, the male's active force created the human, but females would only be produced if the male's force had a defect. However, Aquinas argued against this, saying that woman was "not misbegotten, but is included in nature's intention as directed to the work of generation." In other words, the variations in nature were necessary for the survival of man, and thus, the defects in the male seed would produce more and more females which would increase survival rates, since more females meant more births. Aquinas further elucidated that God formed the male and female in order for this "intention" of nature to exist. In other words, Aquinas acknowledged the notion of genetic variability that existed in nature in order to support his argument. He recognized that each living thing on earth was unique, even if it was very subtle. This variation was apart of nature, and thus, because God created nature to be this way, man and woman would provide their offspring with variation. Instead of having many Adam clones, God intended that each human being would be distinct and unique, and thus, he created man and woman.

In his reply to the second objection, Aquinas listed the two versions of subjection, one more "servile" and the other more "civil." He explained that the latter subjection existed before sin. This subjection, in which "the superior makes use of his subjects for their own benefit and good," was the relationship between Adam and Eve before they were punished. Naturally, Aquinas explained, men were superior in intellect, and thus, had natural subject over women. He argued that the more servile type of subjection, in which the husband would rule over their wife, began after sin. Thus, subjection existed before sin, but a more intense version of this subjection originated from God's punishments in response to their sins. In response to Aquinas' argument, it seemed that once again, his anti-feminist beliefs still overshadowed his reasoning. Eve was the only one who pursued and acquired knowledge from the forbidden tree on her own, without the input of Adam. Thus, Eve seemed to be the more knowledgeable human. Adam only ate the fruit after Eve gave him it. Thus, there was inequality between the sexes before sin, and thus, was the cause of this sin, but it was not in the same nature as Aquinas explained. Despite this, Aquinas elucidated that, after sin, the inequality between man and woman was increased because of God's punishments, who had the husband rule over the wife.

In his reply to the third objection, Aquinas explained that things that were occasions of sins made the universe complete, and thus, dearth of these things would make the universe imperfect. He also elucidated that it was not rational to destroy the imperfections of the world in order to make it perfect, considering the notion that God had the divine power of directing evil toward good. For instance, if God took away sex, a sometimes sinful action, there would be no life, since sex is essential to reproduction, which is vital to survival. Thus, sex, a practice that can occasionally be sinful, is absolutely vital to the survival of mankind. If it was destroyed with all other occasions of sin, life would not exist.

Demonization of Women: Witchcraft, Eve, and Sexuality

Malleus Maleficarum

Part I: Question VI: Concerning Witches Who Copulate with Devils

Why It Is that Women Are Chiefly Addicted to Evil Superstitions:

The author attempted to answer several questions concerning witches that fornicated with devils. He wondered how the devil was physically able to have sex with a woman. He pondered what element his body was made of, whether semen was exchanged during sex, whether this sexual act was a frequent event, and whether this act was actually visible to others. Also, he wondered if women conceived by the devil were the only ones who had sex with the devil frequently, or whether women "were offered to devils by midwives at the time of their birth. He also wondered if the sexual pleasure of the woman's was lesser or equal to the "venereal delectation" of the devil. What seemed unfair in this selection was that the author did not question whether the act of sex between a woman and a devil actually took place. The author automatically assumed that the woman had sex with the devil and there was no question as to whether the devil raped her or not. Thus, the author was extremely unfair and had little faith in women. The author also wondered why "this kind of perfidy" was found more in women, the more "fragile" gender. The author again demonstrated his unfairness and dearth of faith in woman. Rather than calling the woman a victim of a horrific act, he used the word perfidy, suggesting that the woman was once again deceived, much like Eve in the Garden of Eden. The author also wanted to discover what conditions were typical of woman who participate in witchcraft. He also, once again, specifically referenced midwives and wondered if they were the ones who "surpass all others in wickness." Here, the author seemed to make another assumption. His superficiality was clear, since he was judging women based on their age and physical appearance. To him, since midwives were not youthful and not as lucky in physical appearance, they were potential witches. He created a stereotype of witches, an older, ugly appearance that reflected their inner wickedness.

Why Superstition is Chiefly Found in Women:

Here, the author questioned "why a greater number of witches [are] found in the fragile feminine sex than among men." He began by pointing out that it was "accredited by actual experience, apart from the verbal testimony of credible witnesses." In other words, the author immediately proved that his evidence for witchcraft was invalid. The women were the only ones who were claiming they were having sex with the devil, who were most likely only saying they were to save themselves, considering that they would be sentenced to death if they did not admit what had happened. If women said they had sex with the devil and said it was forced upon them, the women would live. If they spoke the truth, and said they were not witches, they would be sentenced to death. Again, the author's irrationality was his first flaw. He went further and said that the instances in which men claimed they were possessed by the devil were invalid, so that he would not detract "from a sex in which God has always taken great glory that His might should be spread abroad." Here, it was obvious the major reason for the author's inclination to accuse women of witchcraft was based on his interpretation and belief in the story presented in Genesis, in which women could be interpreted as inferior and more gullible then men. Also, the interpretation that women brought evil into the world because of Eve's deceitfulness in the Garden of Eden was another reason why the author was inclined to point his finger at women.

Then, the author quoted Ecclesiasticus XXV, which stated that "there is no wrath above the wrath of a woman. I had rather dwell with a lion and a dragon than to keep house with a wicked woman... All wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman." He went further, stating that it was not good to marry, claiming that women were nothing but a "fore to friendship, an unescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair colours!" In other words, the author believed that a women's physical attractiveness was her greatest threat to mankind. Despite this however, women were essential to the survival of all humanity, which was why he stated that women were a "necessary evil." He consistently stated that women were "desirable," "delectable," and "painted with fair colours." Thus, to him, woman's only positive quality (beauty) was nothing but a disease to the existence of man. The author's inability to recognize the many other positive qualities of women was the proof of his incredibility. He seemed extremely frustrated that men were forced to live with them, considering it was a sin to divorce and necessary for women to exist for mankind to survive. The author then stated that first reason why women were more inclined to be witches: their gullibility. This was a direct reference to the Garden of Eden story, in which Eve was "tricked" by the snake, and not Adam. Once again, the author proved his anti-feminist beliefs, which seemed to be based on his interpretation of Gen 2-3.

Next, the author tried to "save himself" by stating that women should be praised as much as possible, considering the "benediction of Mary." Thus, despite the fact that Eve was the first human to commit evil, the notion that a woman, Mary, would be an extremely important figure in the Christian Church, was glorified by God was a reason to praise women. As such, the author needed to note that not all women were bad, but merely that they were more inclined to be witches because not all women were like Mary. He also noted that because women were "feebler both in mind and body," they were more often found to be witches. His anti-feminist and ignorant views were once again clear. It seemed that the author was basing his attitudes towards women more on personal experience rather than interpretation of Genesis. Despite the fact that men have a clear physical advantage over women, woman have not in any way proven that they lack the mental abilities that men possess. It was merely the fact that society, at the time, restricted the education of women that cause any person to believe that woman lacked intellect. He further argued that women had the mental capacity of children. He said, "As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion." In other words, if a women lacked physical attractiveness, she may have intelligence, but if a woman had beauty, it was extremely rare that she possessed knowledge greater than a child. In response to this, women possess the potential to acquire knowledge, much like Eve demonstrated. In fact, it seemed that the notion that Eve acquire knowledge first was an argument that women were in fact smarter than men. Eve was the first human being to desire and acquire knowledge. Adam did not acquire knowledge until Eve instructed him to do so. Thus, Eve was equally if not smarter of than her male companion. The author never mentioned this aspect of the Gen 2-3 story.

The author then went into a deep discussion about the physical nature of women, explaining that women were more physically sexual than men, but they were also deformed, considering that Eve was created from Adam's breast rib, which was bent differently than men. First of all, there was no physical deformity in women. Second, comparing the physical appearance of women with a man was unreasonable, considering that men and women were so much different than one another. It was like comparing two different fruits: a banana and a pear. A banana had many physical differences with a pear, but one person may favor the banana, and another may favor the pear. Thus, the author proved that his reasoning behind his argument was based more on opinion than factual details. The author went on, describing women as an imperfect animal (because she was formed from Adam's rib), and thus, an imperfect women, which caused her to deceive. In fact, the author noted that women used their tears to deceive men. Thus, it was clear that the author was basing his arguments off of personal experience rather than factual details. He also concluded that women were "weaker to hold and preserve the faith." As such, he believed that a woman's lack of intelligence He once again attempted to save himself by noting that it was in woman's nature to possess this negative traits, and that women, such as the Blessed Virgin Mary, did in fact have faith and were important figures in Christianity. However, it was obvious that the author's anti-feminist opinions effected the arguments he made.

The author then goes on to explain the various times in history in which "the world [had] been overthrown by women. He explained that Troy was destroyed by Helen's rape, Jews were destroyed through Jezebel, and Cleopatra brought evil upon the Romans. He referred to Cleopatra as "the worst of women." He then said that this was an obvious reason that women brought suffering into the world through their evils. He then quoted Valerius, who compared women to Chimaera, a mythical beast with the face of a lion, the "filthy belly of a goat" and a viper for a tail. Thus, he concluded that women were "beautiful to look upon, contaminating to the touch, and deadly to keep." He then went on to describe the voice of a woman, saying that women were inclined to lie, and could infect men with it while delighting them with it, like the Sirens, mythical creatures who sing to their prey, entice them, and kill them. He said that women "kill" men by spending their money, "consuming their strength," and cause them to forsake God. He also believed that a women's "gait, posture, habit," had similar intoxicating effects on men. In other words, every physical trait of a women intoxicated men, making them forsake knowledge and religion for bodily desires. He believed that women used their beauty and sexuality to get what they wanted from men. As such, the author demonstrated his interpretation of Eve. In other words, the author believed that Eve enticed Adam, much like the Sirens, into eating the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. Once again, his dearth of faith in women was accurate, and represented opinion rather than fact. Much of his references applied to Greek mythology, stories that were not necessarily true. Thus, the author's had lack of credibility.

The author then went on to explain why woman was the devil's helper so to speak. In the Garden of Eden, the snake (the devil) tempted Eve to sin, and yet the author could not help but point out that Eve then brought Adam down with her. If Eve had not "seduced" Adam, all of mankind would not have to suffer from Eve's sin. Adam was tempted by Eve, not the Devil, and so women were worse than the devil. By doing so, Eve destroyed the inner soul of men and caused suffering of the physical body. He then pointed out that men were caught by women through their own carnal desires, their sexuality. Women, thus, use their sexuality and men's attraction for them as an advantage to "cast their spells on men."

He concluded this section by stating all witchcraft "comes from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable." Thus, the author believed that women were the basis and origin of all bodily desires. He then stated that it was good that God protected men from possession by devils, since they were the more powerful and obedient than women. He believed God protected men and not women, and also thought that Christ died for the sins of Adam, not Eve, and thus for men and not women.

What Sort of Women Are Found to Be Above All Others Superstitious and Witches:

The author stated that three "vices" that were signs of a witch were "infidelity, ambition, and lust." All of these traits pointed back to Eve. Eve was not faithful to God, or perhaps not faithful to Adam, according to the Vita, which claimed that Eve had sex with demons. Others believed that Eve had sex with the snake in the garden. Furthermore, Eve demonstrated ambition. Rather than obey God and not eat from the Tree of Knowledge, Eve desired knowledge and thus went with her own free will. She was the first human being to demonstrate that one could determine their own destiny. She acquired knowledge before Adam, which was a direct manifestation of her ambition. Lust of course was referring to the author's belief that Eve seduced Adam to eat the fruit. Then, the author listed seven methods, or powers of witches: controlling minds of men, obstructing men's force, removing their penises, by changing men into beasts, making women infertile, abortion, and offering children to devils. Controlling minds of men, clearly, was a power that originated from the Garden of Eden story.

The author then went to an extended discussion about the first sin, in which the devil, through the snake, tempted Eve and thus, caused the fall of men by having Eve seduce Adam to eat the fruit as well. He pointed out that matrimony was ruined through the work of the devil, through women, who "satisfy their filthy lusts not only in themselves, but even in the mighty ones of the age, of whatever state and condition; causing by all sorts of witchcraft the death of their souls through excessive infatuation of carnal love, in such a way that for no shame or persuasion can they desist from such acts." Thus, the author portrayed witches as these sex-craving nymphomaniacs that lost their souls through their sexuality. As such, the author clearly obscured his view of women, and this was evident in his arguments. He was completely irrational. Like all humans, and men, women made mistakes.

Part I, Question VIII: Whether Witches Can Hebetate the Powers of Generation or Obstruct the Venereal Act:

The author stated that the powers of witchcraft were not only in men's imaginations, but they physically could be generated. The witches of course channel the devil's power through their bodies. He then pointed out that women whose husbands could not copulate with them was simply the devil's fault. The devil also had the power to both arouse and discourage men from copulating with women. The devil also could make a man infatuated with a women, since the devil had powers that effected the imagination. He could also prevent erections. Thus, erectile dysfunction, arousal, infatuation, and other sexual disorders were considered works of the devil, when, in reality, they were problems and sensations that arose from men's bodies. The author clearly had lack of scientific knowledge, especially considering the time at which the text was written. The author then explained the reason why men were bewitched by women, rather than women being bewitched. The answer, he pointed out, was because women were attracted to men, and vice versa. Once again, the author referred to a women's sexuality. Because women had a particular effect on men, he believed that women were at fault. But in reality, it was men's high levels of testosterone that drove them to pursue women. Men, physiologically, were much more sexual creations. Thus, it was men's sexuality, not just women's, that caused men to cheat on their wives. Like Adam, men decided to blame women for their faults, when they could have just refused to do what a women wanted. Adam could have told Eve he did not want to eat the fruit, but he listened to Eve anyway. Thus, it was not just Eve's fault, but also Adam's. The author acted like Adam, blaming women for his sins and flaws, where in reality, he was the ultimate controller of his destiny.

"On the Apparel of Women": Tertullian

The author's audience was all women, in which he attempted to persuade them a certain way but constantly referring to Eve's sin. He made a connection with Eve to all women, saying that because Eve was the devil's gateway, all women were. They destroyed Adam, God's image. He even blamed Eve, and thus all women, for the notion that even Christ had to die. He then went on to describe that women's concern for appearance and beauty were flaw in themselves. He believed that women should adopt a more conservative style of dress in order to repent much like Eve did in mourning when she was expelled from paradise. In other words, a women's dress should reflect a state of mourning, for a women's life should be spent repenting for Eve's sin. Thus, the author's interpretation of Gen 2-3 clearly were based on anti-feminist views. Women, to Tertullian, should live their lives trying to make up for Eve's sin. This idea was irrational.

Testament of Reuben:

In this text, the author clearly attempted to demonstrate the evil of women. He believed, much like the previous authors, that a women's beauty was her greatest weapon, capable of destroy the lives of men, much like Eve. He believed that despite women's lack of power over men, women had the ability and strategy capable of tricking men and using them to against their will for her own advantage. He also believed that women were more promiscuous than men. Once again, the author's credibility in this statement was implausible since it is now a scientific fact that men crave sex much more than women because of their physiological differences, such as levels of testosterone. The author went on stating that women used their lust to control the minds of men, and charmed them. It was men's desire for men that caused them to be controlled. In other words, the author stated the real reason why men commit certain sins. It was the men's flaws, not just the woman's, that caused sin. Women's minds were just as filled with lust, if not less, than men's, much as science has demonstrated in the present day. Thus, much like the rest of the readings, the author's beliefs seemed attributable to the time period, since many mysteries in science were not solved. The author's based their beliefs on stories such as the Garden of Eden, in which women were tricked and were the seductresses. But, in reality, men also brought about their own downfalls by lusting after women. It was engraved within their physical and emotional bodies. As such, it was a combination of the lust of men and women that caused the downfall of mankind.

Augustine, Original Sin

The Literal Meaning of Genesis: Augustine

Book III, Chapter 22: "Woman, in so far as she has a rational mind, is made to the image and likeness of God."

Here, Augustine explained and argued against certain beliefs regarding the creation of man and woman. He argued against the notion that both sexes appeared in one single human being. He supported his argument with the text. In the text, the author said "He made them... and He blessed them." Thus, the plurality was a direct indicator that two creatures were created rather than a single one.

Also, Augustine elucidated that notion that man's spiritual body was created initially and later, as in a separate event, God gave man a physical body. He supported this by saying that man was "formed" from the slime of the earth, or dust, and before this, God created man, referring to the spirit of man. But what he also explained was that this mind of man contained two entities, masculine and feminine, since man and woman were created together. Thus, the feminine and masculine spiritual entities made up the entire spirit of a human being. The masculine, he explained represented the "contemplation of eternal truth" and the feminine established "administration of temporal things," respectively. Here, he acknowledged that the truth was related to God, and thus, man was the image and likeness of God. However, the feminine part, he argued, was the "glory of man." In other words, the feminine side should obey the masculine, or truth, quality of the human spirit. In other words, the masculine part of the spirit, the part that decides what is rightful and truthful must rule over the feminine part, the more emotional aspect of the human spirit. Thus, Augustine explained that human actions were controlled by this duality of opposing spirits, and it was up to humans to decide what part of their spirit to live by.

Book VI, Chapter 5: "Second hypothesis: In the creation of the six days, God created all living things, including Adam and Eve, potentially and in their causes. From these causes God later created them in their visible forms."

Augustine immediately argued against this statement, considering it was a complete contradiction of the text, since male and female were created together in the first Genesis story. Male and female were created together, and thus were not separately created. However, this referred to the spiritual aspects of men and women, rather than the physical. After their spirits were created, God formed the physical bodies of men from dust and woman from man's rib.

Book IX, Chapter 3: "The woman as a helper. God's plan for procreation."

Augustine agreed that woman's main purpose was for the procreation of children, since the first Genesis story explicitly stated that God commanded humans to reproduce. However, Augustine also believed that, despite the fact that Scripture stated that Eve and Adam did not have sexual intercourse until after they were expelled, the pair had sex in Paradise, when sex had no negative consequences, such as the painful pregnancies. God gave them this blessing the moment they were created, and thus, it was almost certain that the two had sexual intercourse before they were expelled. In fact, it was only after they were punished that sex had negative repercussions. Thus, it was apart of human nature, according to Augustine, for the two to have sex, since it caused pleasure, had no negative consequences, and God allowed them to do so.

Book IX, Chapter 5: "In what sense Eve was made as a helper for Adam."

Here, Augustine discussed why he believed that woman had no other purpose besides procreation. He argued that woman could not help man in work and labor, since men were physically dominant over woman. Also, he explained that if God wanted to give Adam a friend or companion that would merely converse with Adam and share a life with him, why would God choose a woman and not a man, who, Augustine argued, would make a much better choice, considering man's physical dominance and closer resemblance to Adam. Though Augustine had valid arguements, he forgot one reason that men would rather have a woman, and that was the desire for sex. Because it was apart of human nature to desire sexual pleasure, and since Eve was the answer to this, the creation of women could have been for both procreation and a means of satisfying the desires of Adam.

Book XI, Chapter 30: The exchange between the serpent and the woman."

Augustine argued that Eve was not tricked, but willingly committed sin when she decided to believe the snake. He argued that because she reiterated God's command, and thus, knew what God had said, this made her sin more serious. Thus, this revealed yet another aspect of human nature, the ability to make choices, and humans were able to disobey. He also argued that the reason why woman decided to eat it was not because the snake said it was okay to do so, but because she thought the tree looked "good for food and a delight to behold." Thus, this revealed another aspect of human nature, superficiality. Humans tend to only see what is on the outside, rather than analyzing the inner workings of life. Because the tree looked good, the woman decided to eat from it, and because she did not die, Adam agreed to eat it as well. Thus, the only thing keeping the humans from eating from the tree was not God's command, but because God said that they would die. Since the snake convinced them they would not die, they decided to eat from it. They did not care about obeying God's orders.

Book XI, Chapter 34: "Adam, hiding himself in shame, is called forth by God."

Augustine argued that the reason God asked Adam first was because God already knew what had happened. He asked the most innocent of the three sinners, Adam. If one had to rank the three based on innocence, it would be Adam as the most innocent, then Eve, and then the snake, considering that the snake caused Eve to sin, who caused Adam to sin.

Book XI, Chapter 35: "The excuses of Adam and Eve."

Here, Augustine revealed that both Adam and Eve did not own up to their sins. Rather than telling God directly that they had disobeyed him, they pointed fingers at others, making excuses. Thus, Augustine believed that this passage exemplified another aspect of human nature, the tendency for mankind to make up excuses rather than owning up to their mistakes. Augustine also noted that because Adam and Eve made up excuses, it revealed that they knew they had sinned and disobeyed.

Book XI, Chapter 37: "The sentenced pronounced on the woman."

Augustine argued that the text demonstrated that Eve had not had children before she had been punished, and thus, all humans who Eve would have borne (had she not eaten from the Tree of Knowledge) would live a life without suffering and death. Thus, Augustine believed that Eve was the direct cause of the mortality of man. However, one should note, that nothing indicated that mankind was immortal when created. Furthermore, why would God force humans to multiply if they were immortal, considering that procreation was a process nature had in order for species to survive? In other words, if God told humans to multiply and all humans were immortal, an overpopulation of humans would flourish, causing problems. Thus, reproduction would not be necessary if humans were immortal.

Book XI, Chapter 41: "Theories about the nature of the sin of Adam and Eve."

Here, Augustine explained that the aspect of human nature that caused the pair to sin was their desire to acquire knowledge. Furthermore, Augustine also discussed the theory that argued the Tree of Knowledge represented sexual intercourse, and thus, God punished Adam and Eve for having sex before they were ready. However, this seemed inplausible considering that God had ordered males and females to reproduce, and sexual intercourse was the means of doing so.

Book XI, Chapter 42: "Did Adam believe the words spoken through the serpent? How was he tempted to sin?"

Augustine argued that the snake could not have convinced Adam to disobey God. Rather it was the spiritual aspect of man, the "female" aspect, that caused Adam to disobey. Because he had emotional attachment towards Eve, Adam chose to believe Eve, not wanting to upset her and thus, be rejected by her. Augustine believed that this part of men caused Adam to sin, because he believed that the emotional and sexual aspects of man can overshadow their knowledge. Adam did not want to become alienated from Eve, so he decided to eat like she instructed him to do. Augustine also considered the possibility that Adam ate the fruit because he realized Eve did not die, and thus, did not want Eve to have knowledge that he did not know.

pg. 80 Midrash: Berakoth 61a

Here, the rabbi reflected on what was meant by the text when it said God "formed" man. He proposed that, because the Hebrew word for form had two "yods", one good and one evil, this meant God created two inclinations one good and one evil. This may be an extreme interpretation, considering that many believe that man consisted of both masculine and feminine spiritual aspects. Thus, one could interpret that God decided one spiritual part of the man was good and the other, whether male or female, was evil.

pg. 98 Midrash: Gen Rab 23: 5

This passage implied that Adam had not experienced desire until his wife was created. Thus, woman was the sole source of sexual desire. This notion that sexual desire, whether positive or negative, originated entirely from the creation of women seemed far-fetched. However, it does make sense, since Adam did not have desire to have sex until Eve's creation. Despite this, this sexual desire seemed engraved within Adam's instinctual nature, and thus, immediately when he saw Eve, he was attracted to her. Thus, Eve was not the cause of his sexual desire, but rather Adam's human nature.

Original Sin and Human Nature: Reaction to Jesus as Rescuer

Original Sin was the Catholic belief that all humans were born sinners and with this "original sin" of Adam and Eve within them. It was also the belief that humans would suffer and eventually die as a result of the sins of Adam and Eve. It assumed that, because all humans were born with sin, it was human nature in itself to sin and only care about one's one well-being rather than how one's actions would effect others. In other words, all humans were like Adam and Eve, who were inclined to disobey when they did not think their actions would have any consequences. When Eve realized the fruit would not kill her, she saw that the fruit was desirable and pleasing to the eye. Despite the orders given to Adam by God, Eve could not resist eating the fruit. And Adam, seeing that Eve had not died from eating the fruit, could not resist either. Thus, the instincts of Adam and Eve to sin were passed on to all generations of humans. As such, human nature, according to the author, was intrinsically evil.

It was believed that through Jesus Christ's suffering and death on the cross, humans were given the opportunity to shed their sins, including this original sin they were born with, and thus, achieve eternal life in Heaven. In other words, if one followed the teachings of Jesus Christ, one would live forever in paradise. The author argued that this was an outdated and dangerous concept. Because of this original sin, humans were guilty, selfish, jealous, the list goes on. In other words, Christians believed that through Jesus they were cleansed of this original sin, and thus were no longer subject to the evils of human nature. This was obviously not true, considering that plenty of righteous people are not Christians and plenty of evil individuals were brought up as Christians.

I believe that human nature is intrinsically both good and bad. I believe there are multifarious common qualities human beings possess that have both negative and positive connotations. All human beings have experienced temptation, and all human beings must learn from experiences in order to determine what is right and wrong. It is not naturally engraved within one's spiritual and physical entity to automatically know what is right and wrong. Rather, humans learn from their mistakes and adapt to various environments.